By Nana Kuffour
Ghanaians believe that Ghana is the most religious country in the world. Indeed, every nook and cranny is infested with Churches and Mosques, and the government is now building an enormous Cathedral intended to symbolize how deeply-rooted Ghanaians are in religion.
The three dominant religions in Ghana are Christianity (about 71% of the population according to the 2021 census), Islam (20%) and indigenous beliefs (3%). Those of other religions and those having no religion account for the remaining 6%.
History narrates that the Akans broke away from Kemetic Egypt when the Nubian Pharaonic dynasty fell to the Arabs. Settling in the old Ghanaian Empire, they maintained some of their Kemetic rituals such as ancestor worship which they still practice today.
When the Arabs Islamised almost the whole of the west coast of Africa the Akans fled to the forest regions of modern-day Ghana where they continued to practice their traditional religion.
Other ethnic groupings such as the Guans, Gas, and Ewe also maintained their traditional religions until the Portuguese settled in the coastal regions of what was then the ‘Gold Coast’. The Akans, Gas and Ewe were then gradually ‘christianized’ till Ghana gained its independence in 1957.
New Religious Movements (NRM)
Beckford and Levasseur define NRMs as ‘Organised attempts to mobilise human and material resources for the spreading of new ideas and sensibilities of a religious nature’. Most NRMs sprung up after the Second World War, but they had their roots at the beginning of the 20th Century.
According to Professor E. Dovlo, no system of caterogisation can neatly differentiate between different types of NRMs. However, Dovlo identifies six main types which are: Neo-African, Christian, Oriental, Islamic, Eclectic, and African Diasporic. We will consider each type in turn.
Neo-African NRMs
Neo-African NRMs arose in the early 20th century in reaction to the influx of christianity and Islam. Popular cults such as Tigare, Nana Tongo, and Kundi attracted support from various parts of the country, and were characterized by rituals of eating or drinking medicines and concoctions.
Adherents believed this would protect them against witchcraft attacks and secure their wellbeing. Whereas traditional shrines in southern Ghana were linked to ethnicity, neo-African shines were acquired on a personal basis.
For example, the very popular Tigare shrine in Pepease, Kwahu East District was purchased from Nangbagu Yipala in northern Ghana to help the local community ward of witchcraft and to foster good deeds.
Tigare and other shrines or cults operated as franchises and, according to Dovlo, were run on congregational lines with adherents paying registration fees and dues. They also actively promoted themselves through votaries.
In the 1940s, Tigare in particular posed a great threat to the Christian faith. The Christian Way, a paper published by the Scottish Mission, expressed grave concern about Tigare’s influence on Christians.
In the edition of July/August 1948, for example, F. W. K. Akuffo writes about a tour of Akyem, Kotoku and Abuakwa Districts: “At every meeting the chief problem facing the congregation was Christians going back to the Tigare cult… At many places the members and even Presbyters were votaries of the cult.” In 1947 the Christian Council of Ghana issued a pamphlet in English and three major Ghanaian languages entitled ‘Tigare or Christ’, revealing the strong influence the cult had on Christians and the attempts by the churches to combat it.
Around the 1960s, the tide of the medicine-drinking Shrines began to ebb. The colonial government had earlier banned most of the shrines, and the rise of independent African churches curbed the flow of Christians to the medicine-drinking shrines.
The new churches satisfied the same needs that the shrines satisfied. According to Fields, the decline of the shrines was also a consequence of the greed of the shrine owners which impoverished their members and eventually destroyed the shrines themselves.
Another type of Neo-African Religious Movement is the Afrikania Mission. This movement was founded in 1982 by Osofo Okomfo Damuah, a suspended Catholic priest, with the aim of revitalising the indigenous religions of Ghana, purging foreign elements, and raising an African consciousness based on racial, national, or tribal affiliation.
The Afrikania Mission promoted herbal medicine and succeeded in bringing together practitioners of traditional religions in Ghana.
Christian NRMs
Founded by Ghanaians and Nigerians, African Independent Churches and Charismatic Ministries emerged as a reaction to westernization. They are commonly called African Initiated Churches or Spiritual Churches due to their spiritual ethos and ecstatic style of worship.
According to Dovlo, these churches have bridged the gap between African traditional religion and Christianity by using the gospel to make practical responses to the needs of their adherents.
They affirm traditional worldviews while providing solutions in the name of Christ, often through rituals which have close parallels in African tradition. These include healing, prayer, prophecy, organisation, priesthood, observance of taboos and the sanctioning of African marriage practices such as polygamy.
The most prominent of these churches in Ghana are the Apostles Revelation Society, the Musama Disco Christo Church, the Twelve Apostles Church, the Nigritian Episcopal Church and the Saviour Church of Ghana.
Most of the Charismatic Ministries were formed in the 1980s having emerged from the evangelical ferment of the 1960s and 1970s.
While believing – like the Independent Churches – in the power of the Holy Spirit and in miracles, they accuse those Churches of being involved with the supernatural entities of indigenous religion.
Starting as lay fellowships which harnessed the talents of members into effective ministry teams, their ministry now has three areas of emphasis: spiritual rebirth, the hope of eternal life, and the creation of caring communities. Members tend to be well-educated and more evenly distributed between the sexes.
Oriental NRMs
Oriental NRMs are usually based Hinduism and other forms of eastern spirituality brought to Ghana by World War 2 veterans who fought in Burma. However, others were established as branches of international organisations.
According to Dovlo, the motivation was often the desire to provide holistic health care, and a number of healers claiming expertise in Indian spiritual methods now advertise in newspapers.
In addition, various international neo-Hindu and Buddhist movements have been operating in Ghana for the past twenty years.
These include The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (popularly known as the Hare Krishna Movement), Ananda Marga Ghana, Nichiren Shoshu of Ghana, Nichiren Shosu Soka Gakkai, The Sri Sathya Sai Seva Organisation, and The Maha Bhodi Society.
Islamic NRM
Since the late 1950s, when Arab Islamic diplomatic missions were opened in the country following independence, Ghanaian Muslims have been exposed to various Islamic teachings and ideas. This created competition among those Islamic states who wished to extend their cultural and religious influence in the country. The offering of scholarships to Saudi Arabia in particular produced a group of Ghanaian Muslims who were disposed towards Wahabism. Calling themselves Ahlus-Sunnah, they were anxious to eliminate the dominant Sufi (mystical) brotherhood, the Tijaniyyah. This rivalry led to violent conflict such that the government had to intervene to prevent further clashes between the two groups. Efforts are currently being made to resolve the conflict.
Eclectic NRMs
This type of NRM combines several religions together – Christianity, Islam, Oriental and Traditional – in a variety of permutations.
A good example is the Zetaheal Mission founded by Prophetess Lehem which brings together Islam and Christianity with the aim of unifying and purifying them both. It therefore observes rituals taken from each religion. For example, adherents pray on Fridays and also on Sundays.
African Diaspora NRMs
These movements derive from Africans living in the diaspora. Examples include the Rastafari, the Nation of Islam, and the African Hebrew Israelites. Many African Americans and people in Caribbean countries feel a strong connection with Africa, especially Ghana.
Rastafarians have a particular attachment to Dr Kwame Nkrumah who some have immortalized as their link to the deity. The Rastafari movement in Ghana started in 1975 when a Jamaican visited the country and established Rastafarianism in Accra.
Similarly, the Nation of Islam was launched in Accra when its leader Louis Farrakhan visited Ghana.
Summary
NRMs arise in response to crises. For example, the number of traditional shrines increased following the outbreak of Influenza in Ghana after the First World War, and the Independent African Churches arose after the second World War (It was even rumoured that Kwame Nkrumah was a secret adherent of Kankan Nyame).
And the political turmoil caused by frequent military coups contributed to the creation of many NRMs with Men of God offering prosperity to the urban poor. This was the origin of the Prosperity Gospel phenomenon in Ghana.